Hurricanes Harvey and Irma were category 4 hurricanes that produced more rainfall along the Gulf and East Coasts of the USA than any other storm that season, and thus, these hurricanes provide the conditions for an outstanding case study. Among the 17 TCs that occurred during the 2017 hurricane season, 10 developed rapidly to a hurricane level and had an unusually long lifespan, and six became major hurricanes (Gert, Harvey, Irma, Jose, Lee, and Maria). The 2017 Atlantic hurricane season was one of the most active on record, resulting in the third-highest number of major hurricanes in a single year over the past century, surpassed only by the 19 seasons (Lim et al. The energy of hurricanes invigorates severe weather events when they discharge their energy to the mainland. Hurricane activity commonly moves from these formation locations upward and eastward on route to the mainland. In the western Northern Hemisphere, hurricanes form mainly off the Gulf and East Coasts of the USA these hurricanes are instigated by easterly winds that form over western Africa (Mo et al. Atmospheric water vapor has been identified as an essential indicator for deep convection, leading to the formation of a hurricane once a certain threshold is met (Wang et al. Hence, warm ocean surface temperatures are necessary for the development of a hurricane, and hurricane prediction schemes could be improved by monitoring atmospheric water vapor (Rios-Berrios et al. The band of air and wind that surrounds the eye of a hurricane acts as a conduit for vertical wind, which drags water vapor up from the warm ocean surface (Emanuel 1989). This energy transfer occurs mainly through the evaporation of water into the atmosphere, consequently boosting radial circulation within the TC by conserving the rotational momentum of the rotating air surface (Smith 2000). It is well established that TCs, i.e., hurricanes, draw heat energy from warm ocean areas through sensible and latent heat fluxes (Emanuel 1991). However, intensity forecasting continues to be challenged by an inadequate understanding of the boundary layer and air–ocean exchange physics and by the deficiencies of real-time measurements of ocean mixed layer properties affecting the thermal signature of the subsurface ocean heat content under high winds (Emanuel 2018). These satellites receive forward-reflected GPS signals and measure ocean surface roughness, from which wind speed is recovered without appreciable attenuation by rain. Moreover, for higher spatial and temporal resolutions, further research on TCs may be conducted as a result of the recent Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System (CYGNSS) satellite missions (Ruf et al. Infrared measurements obtained from space platforms to study TC characteristics and intensity have also been improved (Olander and Velden 2007). Further, advances in satellite remote sensing have enabled additional inroads in TC tracking (Ackerman et al. Nevertheless, new technological land-based observations and recent advances have increased the accuracy of tropical cyclone (TC) forecasting assessments (Stith et al. Various thermodynamic parameters are necessary for the formation of hurricanes, but the conditions sufficient for the development of hurricanes remain poorly understood (Emanuel 1989).
For several decades, atmospheric researchers have sought to unravel the secrets behind the nature of hurricanes (Rios-Berrios et al. Nevertheless, the reliability of a prediction is complicated when the physical mechanisms that control the creation of a hurricane are not well understood. Meteorologists attempt to forecast the intensity and locations of tropical cyclones days in advance. The already complex underlying physics of hurricanes are further compounded by the combination of warm ocean water, moist air, and winds (Emanuel et al. However, predicting the intensity of a hurricane remains challenging (Emanuel 2017b Elsberry 2014). Some studies have suggested that rising temperatures are to blame for the increased intensity of hurricanes that have been observed in recent years (USGCRP 2017). More moisture evaporates into the atmosphere over a warmer ocean, which invigorates and enlarges hurricanes (Trenberth et al. Over the years, the dissipation of power in hurricanes has increased as their strengths have intensified (Elsner et al. Hurricanes are thermally powered, large-scale storms with wind speeds exceeding 33 m/s that circulate around a well-defined core and are characterized by strong near-surface torrential rainfall (Emanuel 2017a, 1989). Hurricanes are some of the most potent hydrometeorological hazards and can cause severe damage to the coastal regions they strike.